Revision
Regardless of writers’ levels of experience or areas of expertise, many struggle with revision, a component of the writing process that encompasses everything from transformative changes in content and argumentation to minor corrections in grammar and punctuation. Perhaps because revision involves so many forms of modification, it is the focus of most scientific writing guides and handbooks. Revision can be daunting; how does one progress from initial drafts (called “rough drafts” for good reason) to a polished piece of scholarly writing?
Developing a process for revision can help writers produce thoughtful, polished texts and grow their written communication skills. Consider, then, a systematic approach to revision, including strategies to employ at every step of the process.
A System for Approaching Revision
Generally, revision should be approached in a top-down manner by addressing higher-order concerns (HOCs) before moving on to lower-order concerns (LOCs). In writing studies, the term “higher order” is used to denote major or global issues such as thesis, argumentation, and organization, whereas “lower order” is used to denote minor or local issues such as grammar and mechanics (McAndrew and Registad). The more analytical work of revising HOCs often has ramifications for the entire piece. Perhaps in refining the argument, a writer will realize that the discussion section does not fully consider the study’s implications. Or, a writer will try a new organizational scheme and find that a paragraph no longer fits and should be cut. Such revisions may have far-reaching implications for the text.
Dedicating time to tweaking wording or correcting grammatical errors is unproductive if the sentence will be changed or deleted. Focusing on HOCs before LOCs allows writers to revise more effectively and efficiently.
Revision: Higher-Order Concerns
Bearing in mind the general system of revising from HOCs to LOCs, you can employ several revision strategies.
Begin by evaluating how your argument addresses your rhetorical situation—that is, the specific context surrounding your writing, including the audience, exigence, and constraints (Bitzer).
For example, you may write an article describing a new treatment. If the target journal’s audience comes from a variety of disciplines, you may need to include substantial background explanations, consider the implications for practitioners and scholars in multiple fields, and define technical terms. By contrast, if you are addressing a highly specialized audience, you may be able to dispense with many of the background explanations and definitions because of your shared knowledge base. You may consider the implications only for specialists, as they are your primary audience. Because this sort of revision affects the entire text, beginning by analyzing your rhetorical situation is effective.
Analyze your thesis or main argument for clarity.
Write a reverse outline to evaluate the global organization of your text. Unlike traditional outlines, which are written before drafting, reverse outlines reflect the content of written drafts.
Record the main idea of each paragraph in a separate document or in your text’s margins. Then, consider whether the order of your ideas is logical. This method will also help you identify ideas that are out of place or digressive. You may also evaluate organization by printing the text and cutting it up so that each paragraph appears on a separate piece of paper. You may then easily reorder the paragraphs to test different organizational schemes.
Completing a Post-Draft Outline
The reverse outline mentioned above is also known as a post-draft outline. Post-Draft Outline by Alexis McMillan-Clifton provides guidance for completing one for an entire essay draft and for an individual problematic paragraph.
Revision: Lower-Order Concerns
Previously, we examined higher-order concerns (HOCs) as part of the revision stage of the writing process. Once we move to the proofreading stage, it’s time to consider lower-order concerns (LOCs). The difference is simple: HOCs are global issues or issues that affect how a reader understands the entire paper; LOCs are issues that don’t necessarily interrupt the understanding of the writing by themselves.
HOCs vs. LOCs
Higher-Order Concerns
- Audience
- Thesis statement
- Organization
- Focus
- Development of ideas
Lower-Order Concerns
- Grammar
- Punctuation
- Citation
- Spelling
- Sentence structure
You may find yourself thinking, “Well, it depends,” or, “But what if…?” You’re absolutely right to think so. These lists are just guidelines; every writer will have a different hierarchy of concerns. Always try to think in terms of, “Does this affect my understanding of the writing?”
Are HOCs More Important than LOCs?
No, not necessarily. HOCs tend to interrupt a reader’s understanding of the writing, and that’s why they need to be addressed first. However, if a LOC becomes a major obstacle, then it naturally becomes a higher priority.
Here are some other issues you might face. These may be more difficult to categorize, and they may largely depend on the writing. If you think, “It depends,” make notes about the circumstances under which these issues could be an HOC or a LOC.
- Evaluating sources
- Citation method
- Style
- Paragraph structure
- Active vs. passive voice
- Format
How to Address LOCs
Analyze your use of source material: Check any paraphrases and quotations against the original texts. Quotations should replicate the original author’s words, while paraphrases should maintain the original author’s meaning but have altered language and sentence structures. For each source, confirm that you have adhered to the preferred style guide for the target journal or other venue.
Consider individual sentences in terms of grammar, mechanics, and punctuation: Many LOCs can be revised by isolating and examining different elements of the text. Read the text sentence by sentence, considering the grammar and sentence structure. Remember, a sentence may be grammatically correct and still confuse readers. If you notice a pattern—say, a tendency to misplace modifiers or add unnecessary commas—read the paper looking only for that error. Read the document backward, word for word, looking for spelling errors. Throughout the writing process and especially at this stage of revision, keep a dictionary, a thesaurus, and a writing handbook nearby.
Strategies such as reading aloud and seeking feedback are useful at all points in the revision process: Reading aloud will give you distance from the text and prevent you from skimming over what is actually written on the page. This strategy will help you to identify both HOCs, such as missing concepts, and LOCs, such as typos. Additionally, seeking feedback will allow you to test your ideas and writing on real readers. Seek feedback from readers both inside and outside of your target audience in order to gain different perspectives.
Proofreading Advice
The following video features two student tutors from the Writing and Reading Center at Fresno City College. They offer great guidance about proofreading strategies and insights about what to expect when working with Writing Center tutors.
Credit: “Proofreading” by FCCtutors. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License.
Works Cited
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Bitzer, Lloyd. “The rhetorical situation.” Philos Rhetoric, 1968, pp. 1-14.
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McAndrew, Don. Registad, Tom. Tutoring writing: a practical guide for conferences. Boynton/Cook, 2001.
LICENSE AND ATTRIBUTION
Adapted from Arthur Rankin’s “Module 5: Writing Process 81: Lower Order Concerns for Proofreading” of English Composition II, 2023, used according to CC by 4.0.