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Position Argument
In a position argument, your purpose is to present a perspective, or viewpoint, about a debatable issue and persuade readers that your perspective is correct or at least worthy of serious consideration. A debatable issue is one that is subject to uncertainty or to a difference of opinion; in college classes, a debatable issue is one that is complex and involves critical thinking. These issues are not rooted in absolutes; instead, they invite writers to explore all sides to discover the position they support. In examining and explaining their positions, writers provide reasoning and evidence about why their stance is correct.
Many people may interpret the word argument to mean a heated disagreement or quarrel. However, this is only one definition. In writing, argument—or what Aristotle called rhetoric—means “working with a set of reasons and evidence for the purpose of persuading readers that a particular position is not only valid but also worthy of their support.” This approach is the basis of academic position writing.
Note: It is also important to note, however, that the term rhetoric is flexible and has other meanings in the English field involving written, verbal, spatial, and even visual communication, among others.
Overview of a Position Argument
Your instructor likely will require your position argument to include the following elements, which resemble those of Aristotle’s classical argument. However, as you continue the development of your writing identity throughout your composition endeavors, consider ways in which you want to support these conventions or challenge them for rhetorical purposes.
Introduce the issue and your position on the issue
Explain and describe the issue
Address the opposition
Provide evidence to support your position
Offer your conclusion
Position arguments must provide reasoning and evidence to support the validity of the author’s viewpoint. By offering strong support, writers seek to persuade their audiences to understand, accept, agree with, or take action regarding their viewpoints. In a college class, an audience is usually an instructor and other classmates. Outside of an academic setting, however, an audience includes anyone who might read the argument—employers, employees, colleagues, neighbors, and people of different ages or backgrounds or with different interests.
Before you think about writing, keep in mind that presenting a position is already part of your everyday life. You present reasoning to frame evidence that supports your opinions, whether you are persuading a friend to go to a certain restaurant or persuading your supervisor to change your work schedule. Your reasoning and evidence emphasize the importance of the issue—to you. Position arguments are also valuable outside of academia. Opinion pieces and letters to the editor are essentially brief position texts that express writers’ viewpoints on current events topics. Moreover, government organizations and political campaigns often use position arguments to present detailed views of one side of a debatable issue.
On a larger scale, arguing in favor of a position is deeply rooted in the American political and social systems, in which free speech and, by extension, open debate are the essence of the democratic process. They are also at the heart of the academic process, in which scholars investigate issues dealing with science, society, and culture, or shared values, customs, arts, and other traits of any social group. However, in the academic world, unlike the political and legal worlds, posing position arguments is usually less about winning or losing than about changing minds, altering perceptions, or defending beliefs and ideas.
It is most useful to look at a position argument as a rational disagreement rather than as a quarrel or contest. Rational disagreements occur most often in areas of genuine uncertainty about what is right, best, or most reasonable. In disciplines such as literature and history, position arguments commonly take the form of interpretation or analysis, in which the meaning of an idea or text is disputed. In disciplines such as engineering and business, position arguments commonly examine a problem and propose a solution. For example, a position paper in engineering might focus on improvement recommendations for systems in the oil and gas industry; a position paper in business might focus on technological changes that would benefit a particular company or industry.
Generating Ideas
If you have the opportunity to choose your own topic and wish to search further, find a controversial issue that affects you or people you know, and take a position on it.
Choose a debatable issue: A position argument that states, for instance, that three-year-old children can not be left alone all evening is one with no room for debate, so the topic would not lead to an effective argument. Without a debate, there is no argument.
Present a clear, definite viewpoint: Readers do not want to guess your position. Although you present both sides of a position, readers must be clear about which side you support. A middle of the road approach to argument is also possible but must be articulated and defended clearly.
Brainstorming Example
For instance, suppose you think about a general subject such as “adulting.” In looking back at what you have learned while becoming an adult, you think of what you wish you had known during your early teenage years. These thoughts might lead you to brainstorm about details of the effects of money on your life or your friends’ lives. In reviewing your brainstorming, you might zero in on one topic you feel strongly about and think it provides enough depth to develop into a position argument.
Suppose your brainstorming leads you to think about negative financial concerns you or some of your friends have encountered. Thinking about what could have helped address those concerns, you decide that a mandated high school course in financial literacy would have been useful. This idea might lead you to formulate your working thesis statement—a first draft of your thesis statement—like this: To help students learn how to make sensible financial decisions, a mandatory class in financial literacy should be offered in high schools throughout the country.
If you are free to choose your own topic, consider one of the following:
Activity
The legal system would be strengthened if ______________________.
The growing use of technology in college classrooms is weakening _____________.
For safety reasons, public signage should be _________________.
For entrance into college, standardized testing _________________________.
In relation to the cost of living, the current minimum wage _______________________.
During a pandemic, America __________________________.
As a requirement to graduate, college students __________________________.
To guarantee the truthfulness of their content, social media platforms have the right to _________________.
To ensure inclusive and diverse representation of people of all races, learning via virtual classrooms _________________.
Segments of American cultures have differing rules of acceptable grammar, so in a college classroom ___________________.
Consider Another Perspective
To gain a different perspective on your issue, consider again the people affected by it. Your position probably affects different people in different ways. For example, if you are writing that the minimum wage should be raised, then you might easily view the issue through the lens of minimum-wage workers, especially those who struggle to make ends meet. However, if you look at the issue through the lens of those who employ minimum-wage workers, your viewpoint might change. Depending on your topic and thesis, you may need to use print or online sources to gain insight into different perspectives.
For additional information about minimum-wage workers, you could consult
printed material available in your college library;
databases in your college library; and
online sources. For instance, you could use a search engine to find details about
pros and cons of raising the minimum wage;
what happens after the minimum wage is raised;
how to live on a minimum-wage salary;
how a raise in the minimum wage is funded; and
minimum wage in various U.S. states.
Note: To gain more insight into your topic, adopt a stance that opposes your original position and brainstorm ideas from that viewpoint. Begin by gathering evidence that would help you refute your previous stance and appeal to your audience.
Writing a Position Argument
Once you decide on a topic and begin moving through the writing process, you may need to fine-tune or even change the topic and rework your initial idea. This fine-tuning may come as you brainstorm, later when you begin drafting, or after you have completed a draft and submitted it to your peers for constructive criticism. These possibilities occur because the writing process is recursive—that is, it moves back and forth almost simultaneously and maybe even haphazardly at times, from planning to revising to editing to drafting, back to planning, and so on.
Creating a Thesis
After you have decided on your topic, the next step is to arrive at your working thesis. You probably have a good idea of the direction your working thesis will take. That is, you know where you stand on the issue or problem, but you are not quite sure of how to word your stance to share it with readers. At this point, then, use brainstorming to think critically about your position and to discover the best way to phrase your statement.
For example, after reading an article discussing different state-funded community college programs, one student thought that a similar program was needed in Alabama, her state. However, she was not sure how the program worked. To begin, she composed and answered “reporters’ questions” such as these:
Whatdoes a state-funded community college program do? It pays for part or all of the tuition of a two-year college student.
Whoqualifies for the program? High school graduates and GED holders.
Whobenefits from this? Students needing financial assistance, employers, and Alabama residents.
Whyis this needed? Some can’t afford to go to college; tuition goes up every year; colleges would be more diverse if everyone who wanted to go could afford to go.
Wherewould the program be available? At all public community colleges.
Whencould someone apply for the program? Any time.
Howcan the state fund this? Use lottery income, like other states.
The student then reviewed her responses, altered her original idea to include funding through a lottery, and composed this working thesis:
To provide equal educational opportunities for all residents, the state of Alabama should create a lottery to completely fund tuition at community colleges.
Remember that a strong thesis for a position should:
State your stance on a debatable issue.
Reflect your purpose of persuasion.
Be based on your opinion or observation.
When you first consider your topic for an argumentative work, think about the reasoning for your position and the evidence you will need—that is, think about the “because” part of your argument. For instance, if you want to argue that your college should provide free Wi-Fi for every student, extend your stance to include “because” and then develop your reasoning and evidence. In that case, your argument might read like this:
Ervin Community College should provide free Wi-Fi for all students because students may not have Internet access at home.
Note: The “because” part of your argument may come at the beginning or the end and may be implied in your wording.
As you develop your thesis, you may need help funneling all of your ideas. Return to the possibilities you have in mind, and select the ideas that you think are strongest, that recur most often, or that you have the most to say about. Then use those ideas to fill in one of the following sentence frames to develop your working thesis. Feel free to alter the frame as necessary to fit your position.
Thesis Formulas and Examples
________________ is caused/is not caused by ________________, and _____________ should be done.
Example: High tuition rates cause a declining college enrollment rate, and an immediate freeze on the cost of tuition should be applied.
______________ should/should not be allowed (to) ________________ for a number of reasons.
Example: During a pandemic, people who do not wear masks should not be allowed to enter public buildings for several reasons.
Because (of) ________________, ___________________ will happen/continue to happen.
Example: Because of a lack of emphasis on STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, the Arts, and Mathematics) education in public schools, America will continue to lag behind many other countries.
_____________ is similar to/nothing like ________________ because ______________.
Example: College classes are nothing like high school classes because in college, more responsibility is on the student, the classes are less frequent but more intense, and the work outside class takes more time to complete.
______________ can be/cannot be thought of as __________________ because ______________.
Example: The Black Lives Matter movement can be thought of as an extension of the Civil Rights movement from the 1950s and 1960s because it shares the same mission of fighting racism and ending violence against Black people.
Supporting Your Position with Rhetorical Appeals, Evidence, and Logic
Next, consider the details you will need to support your thesis.
If, for instance, you are writing about backing a local proposal to remove a statute of a Civil War general who fought for the Confederacy, readers need to know why you favor its removal, why the statue was first erected, and how removal will help the community. You would then support each with cause-and-effect reasoning and evidence. For example, details that explain why you favor removal might include the general’s support of the Southern economic system sustained by enslavement. Details that explain why the statue was erected might include that the general was from the town and that his family was rich and influential enough to fund the creation and placement of the statue. Details that explain how the removal of the statue will affect the community might include the promotion of a feeling of solidarity with local citizens of all races and the end of negative publicity resulting from association with the general.
Use one or more brainstorming techniques or the details generated from “because” statements to develop ideas or particular points in support of your thesis. Your goal is to get as many ideas as possible. At this time, do not be concerned about how ideas flow, whether you will ultimately use an idea (you want more ideas than will end up in your finished paper), spelling, or punctuation.
When you have finished, look over your brainstorming. Then circle three to five points to incorporate into your draft. Also, plan to answer “reporters’ questions” to provide readers with any needed background information. For example, the student writing about the need for more mental health counselors on her campus created and answered these questions:
Whatis needed? More mental health counseling is needed for Powell College South.
Whowould benefit from this? The students and faculty would benefit.
Whyis this needed? The college does not have enough counselors to meet all students’ needs.
Whereare more counselors needed? More counselors are needed at the south campus.
Whenare the counselors needed? Counselors need to be hired now and be available both day and night to accommodate students’ schedules.
Howcan the college afford this? Instead of hiring daycare workers, the college could use students and faculty from the Early Childhood Education program to run the program and use the extra money to pay the counselors.
Rhetorical Appeals
To persuade your audience to support your position or argument, consider various rhetorical appeals— ethos, logos, pathos, and kairos—and the types of evidence to support your sound reasoning.
Appeal to ethos: To establish credibility in her paper arguing for expanded mental health services, a student writer used these reliable sources: a student survey on mental health issues, data from the International Association of Counseling Services (a professional organization), and information from an interview with a campus mental health counselor.
Appeal to logos: To support her sound reasoning, the student writer approached the issue rationally, using data and credible evidence to explain the current situation and its effects.
Appeal to pathos: To show compassion and arouse audience empathy, the student writer shared the experience of a student on her campus who struggled with anxiety and depression.
Appeal to kairos: To appeal to kairos, the student emphasized the immediate need for these services, as more students are now aware of their particular mental health issues and trying to deal with them.
The way in which you present and discuss your evidence will reflect the appeals you use. Consider using sentence frames to reflect specific appeals. Remember, too, that sentence frames can be composed in countless ways. Here are a few frames to get you thinking critically about how to phrase your ideas while considering different types of appeals.
Examples
Appeal to ethos:
According to __________________, an expert in ______________, __________________ should/should not happen because ________________________.
Although ___________________is not an ideal situation for _________________, it does have its benefits.
Appeal to logos:
If ____________________ is/is not done, then understandably, _________________ will happen.
This information suggests that ____________________ needs to be investigated further because ____________________________.
Appeal to pathos:
The story of _____________________ is uplifting/heartbreaking/hopeful/tragic and illustrates the need for ____________________.
___________________ is/are suffering from ________________, and that is something no one wants.
Appeal to kairos:
_________________ must be addressed now because ________________.
These are times when ______________; therefore, _____________ is appropriate/necessary.
Types of Supporting Evidence
Depending on the point you are making to support your position or argument, certain types of evidence may be more effective than others. Also, your instructor may require you to include a certain type of evidence. Choose the evidence that will be most effective to support the reasoning behind each point you make to support your thesis statement. Common types of evidence are these:
Anecdotes: short narrative.
Renada G., a junior at Powell College South, worked as a waitress for 15 hours a week during her first three semesters of college. But in her sophomore year, when her parents were laid off during the pandemic, Renada had to increase her hours to 35 per week and sell her car to stay in school. Her grades started slipping, and she began experiencing symptoms of depression and anxiety. When she called the campus health center to make an appointment for counseling, Renada was told she would have to wait two weeks before she could be seen.
Definition: an explanation that emphasizes the meaning of an idea, term, or concept.
Here is part of how Lyndon B. Johnson defined the Great Society: “But most of all, the Great Society is not a safe harbor, a resting place, a final objective, a finished work. It is a challenge constantly renewed, beckoning us toward a destiny where the meaning of our lives matches the marvelous products of our labor.”
Description: evidence that portrays a person, place, thing, or idea with sensory or other vivid details.
Bowen Lake is nestled in verdant foothills, lush with tall grasses speckled with wildflowers. Around the lake, the sweet scent of the purple and yellow flowers fills the air, and the fragrance of the hearty pines sweeps down the hillsides in a westerly breeze. Wood frogs’ and crickets’ songs suddenly stop, as the blowing of moose calling their calves echoes across the lake’s soundless surface. Or this was the scene before the deadly destruction of fires caused by climate change.
Example: evidence that illustrates an idea.
When elaborating on America’s beauty being in danger, Johnson says, “The water we drink, the food we eat, the very air that we breathe, are threatened with pollution. Our parks are overcrowded, our seashores overburdened. Green fields and dense forests are disappearing.”
Expert opinion: evidence or viewpoints provided by a professional in the field or someone whose ideas are respected on the subject.
Speaking about President Lyndon B. Johnson and the Vietnam War, noted historian and Johnson biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin said, “It seemed the hole in his heart from the loss of work was too big to fill.”
Fact: information that is true and can be proven correct or accurate.
Charles Blow has worked at the Shreveport Times, The Detroit News, National Geographic, and The New York Times.
Interview: evidence gathered firsthand from a source person, usually in a person-to-person conversation, by phone, or through a remote meeting.
When interviewed by George Rorick and asked about the identities of his readers, Charles Blow said that readers’ emails do not elaborate on descriptions of who the people are. However, “the kinds of comments that they offer are very much on the thesis of the essay.”
Quotation: exact words repeated by someone other than the original author or speaker.
In his speech, Lyndon B. Johnson says, “The Great Society is a place where every child can find knowledge to enrich his mind and to enlarge his talents.”
Statistics: numerical facts or items of data, usually from a study.
To support the need for change in classrooms, Johnson uses these statistics: “Each year more than 100,000 high school graduates, with proved ability, do not enter college because they cannot afford it. And if we cannot educate today’s youth, what will we do in 1970 when elementary school enrollment will be five million greater than 1960?”
Visuals: graphs, photographs, charts, or maps used in addition to written or spoken information.
Graphics like this one present information visually and concisely.
Using Logic
In a position argument, the appropriate use of logic is especially important for readers to trust what you write. It is also important to look for logic in the material you read and to cite this material in your paper so that you can determine whether a writer’s claims are reasonable. Two main categories of logical thought are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning moves from specific to broad ideas. You begin by collecting details, observations, incidents, or facts, examining them, and drawing a conclusion from them. Suppose, for example, you are writing about attendance in college classes. For three weeks, you note the attendance numbers in all your Monday, Wednesday, and Friday classes (specific details), and you note that attendance is lower on Friday than on the other days (a specific detail). From these observations, you determine that many students prefer not to attend classes on Fridays (your conclusion).
Deductive reasoning moves from general to specific ideas. You begin with a hypothesis or premise, a general concept, and then examine possibilities that would lead to a specific and logical conclusion. For instance, suppose you think that opportunities for foreign students at your college are inadequate (general concept). You examine the specific parts of that concept (e.g., whether your college provides multicultural clubs, help with language skills, or work-study opportunities) and determine that those opportunities are not available. You then determine that opportunities for foreign students are lacking at your college.
Logical Fallacies and Propaganda
Fallacies are mistakes in logic. Readers and writers should be aware of these when they creep into writing, indicating that the points the writers make may not be valid. Two common fallacies are hasty generalizations and circular arguments.
A hasty generalization is a conclusion based on either inadequate or biased evidence. Consider this statement: “Two students in Math 103 were nervous before their recent test; therefore, all students in that class must have text anxiety.” This is a hasty generalization because the second part of the statement (the generalization about all students in the class) is inadequate to support what the writer noted about only two students.
A circular argument merely restates what has already been said. Consider this statement: “The Hate U Give is a well-written book because Angie Thomas, its author, is a good novelist.” The statement that Thomas is a good novelist does not explain why her book is well written.
In addition to checking work for fallacies, consider propaganda, information worded to endorse a particular viewpoint, often of a political nature. Two common types of propaganda are bandwagon and fear.
In getting on the bandwagon, the writer encourages readers to conform to a popular trend and endorse an opinion, a movement, or a person because everyone else is doing so. Consider this statement: “Everyone is behind the idea that 7 a.m. classes are too early and should be changed to at least 8 a.m. Shouldn’t you endorse this sensible idea, too?”
In using fear, the writer presents a dire situation, usually followed by what could be done to prevent it. Consider this statement: “Our country is at a turning point. Enemies threaten us with their power, and our democracy is at risk of being crushed. The government needs a change, and Paul Windhaus is just the man to see we get that change.” This quotation appeals to fear about the future of the country and implies that electing a certain individual will solve the predicted problems.
Organizing Your Paper
In a position or an argument essay, you could choose one of two methods: thesis-first organization or delayed-thesis organization.
Thesis-First Organization
Leading with a thesis tells readers from the beginning where you stand on the issue. In this organization, the thesis occupies both the first and last position in the essay, making it easy for readers to remember.
Introduce the issue and assert your thesis. Make sure the issue has at least two debatable sides. Your thesis establishes the position from which you will argue. Writers often state their thesis as the last sentence in the first paragraph, as the student writer has done:
The problem of mental health has become front-page news in the last two months. Hill’s Herald, Powell College South’s newspaper, reported 14 separate incidents of students who sought counseling but could not get appointments with college staff. Since mental health problems are widespread among the student population, the college should hire more healthcare workers to address this problem.
Summarize the counterclaims. Before elaborating on your claims, explain the opposition’s claims. Including this information at the beginning gives your argument something to focus on—and refute—throughout the paper. If you ignore counterclaims, your argument may appear incomplete, and readers may think you have not researched your topic sufficiently. When addressing a counterclaim, state it clearly, show empathy for those who have that view, and then immediately refute it with support developed through reasoning and evidence. Squeezing the counterclaims between the thesis and the evidence reserves the strongest places—the opening and closing—for your position. It is important to note, however, that the organization of a counterargument within a paper is not fixed and can potentially work anywhere in the body, depending on drafting techniques.
Counterclaim 1: Powell College South already employs two counselors, and that number is sufficient to meet the needs of the student population.end student sample text
Counterclaim 2: Powell College South students live in a metropolitan area large enough to handle their mental health needs.
Refute the counterclaims. Look for weak spots in the opposition’s argument, and point them out. Use your opponent’s language to show you have read closely but still find problems with the claim. This is the way the writer refuted the first counterclaim:
While Powell College South does employ two counselors, those counselors are overworked and often have no time slots available for students who wish to make appointments.
State and explain your points, and then support them with evidence. Present your points clearly and precisely, using logos to explain and cite your evidence. The writer plans to use a problem-solution reasoning strategy to elaborate on these three points using these pieces of evidence:
Point 1: Wait times are too long: Kay Payne, one of the campus counselors, states that the wait time for an appointment with her is approximately 10 days.
Point 2: Mental health issues are widespread within the student community: In a recent on-campus student survey, 75% of 250 students say they have had some kind of mental health issues at some point in their life.
Point 3: The staff-to-student ratio is too high: The International Accreditation of Counseling Services recommends one full-time equivalent staff member for every 1,000 to 1,500 students.
Restate your position as a conclusion. Near the end of your paper, synthesize your accumulated evidence into a broad general position, and restate your thesis in slightly different language.
The number of students who need mental health counseling is alarming. The recent news articles that attest to their not being able to schedule appointments add to the alarm. While Powell College South offers some mental health counseling, the current number of counselors and others who provide health care is insufficient to handle the well-being of all its students. Action must be taken to address this problem.
Delayed-Thesis Organization
In this organizational pattern, introduce the issue and discuss the arguments for and against it, but wait to take a side until late in the essay. By delaying the stance, you show readers you are weighing the evidence, and you arouse their curiosity about your position. This is a viable strategy for audiences that might be hostile or more likely to disagree with your stance. Near the end of the paper, you explain that after carefully considering both pros and cons, you have arrived at the most reasonable position.
Introduce the issue. Here, the writer begins with action that sets the scene of the problem.
Tapping her foot nervously, Serena looked at her watch again. She had been waiting three hours to see a mental health counselor at Powell College South, and she did not think she could wait much longer. She had to get to work.
Summarize the claims for one position. Before stating which side you support, explain how the opposition views the issue. This body paragraph presents evidence about the topic of more counselors:
Powell College South has two mental health counselors on staff. If the college hires more counselors, more office space will have to be created. Currently, Pennington Hall could accommodate those counselors. Additional counselors would allow more students to receive counseling.
Refute the claims you just stated. While still not stating your position, point out the other side of the issue.
While office space is available in Pennington Hall, that location is far from ideal. It is in a wooded area of campus, six blocks from the nearest dorm. Students who would go there might be afraid to walk through the woods or might be afraid to walk that distance. The location might deter them from making appointments.
Now give the best reasoning and evidence to support your position. Because this is a delayed-thesis organization, readers are still unsure of your stance. This section should be the longest and most carefully documented part of the paper. After summarizing and refuting claims, the writer then elaborates on these three points using problem-solution reasoning supported by this evidence, implying her position before moving to the conclusion, where she states her thesis.
Point 1: Wait times are too long: Kay Payne, one of the campus counselors, states that the wait time for an appointment with her is approximately 10 days.
Point 2: Mental health issues are widespread within the student community: In a recent on-campus student survey, 75% of 250 students say they have had some kind of mental health issues at some point in their life.end student sample text
Point 3: The staff-to-student ratio is too high: The International Association of Counseling Services recommends one full-time equivalent staff member for every 1,000 to 1,500 students.
State your thesis in your conclusion. Your rhetorical strategy is this: after giving each side a fair hearing, you have arrived at the most reasonable conclusion.
According to the American Psychological Association, more than 40 percent of all college students suffer from some form of anxiety. Powell College South students are no different from college students elsewhere: they deserve to have adequate mental health counseling.
Composing Your Paper
Drafting begins when you organize your evidence or research notes and then put them into some kind of written form. As you write, focus on building body paragraphs through the techniques presented in Parts 3 and 4 of this textbook that show you how to support your position and add evidence. Using a variety of evidence types builds credibility with readers. Remember that the recursiveness of the writing process allows you to move from composing to gathering evidence and back to brainstorming ideas or to organizing your draft at any time. Move around the writing process as needed by your assignment, your composition style, and your personality.
Stay flexible by keeping in mind that a first draft is just the beginning—you will revise it into better work in later drafts. Your first or rough draft is sometimes called a discovery draft because you are discovering how to shape your paper, which ideas to include, and how to support those ideas. These suggestions and graphic organizer may be helpful for your first draft:
Write your thesis at the top of the paper.
Compose your body paragraphs: those that support your argument through reasoning strategies and those that address counterclaims.
Leave your introduction, conclusion, and title for later drafts.
Use a graphic organizer like the one below to focus points, reasoning, and evidence for body paragraphs. You are free to reword your thesis, reasoning, counterclaim(s), refutation of counterclaim(s), concrete evidence, and explanation/elaboration/clarification at any time. You are also free to adjust the order in which you present your reasoning, counterclaim(s), and refuting of counterclaim(s).