1 The Epic of Gilgamesh
Nahir I. Otaño Gracia and Averie Basch
Sumer/Babylon
2500-1400 B.C.E. (Oral and written accounts)
Written in Cuneiform
The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the oldest surviving narratives still known today. Set in the Fertile Crescent of ancient Mesopotamia, Gilgamesh features a strong ruler who abuses his power over an early city but is tempered by a wildman created to be his equal. Gilgamesh and the wildman Enkidu benefit from companionship but Gilgamesh must also confront the inevitable fate awaiting all humans: death.
When imagining the setting of Gilgamesh, it is important to know that the civilization who authored this tale was based in the modern-day Middle East and the city of Uruk in modern-day Iraq. Though a dry desert climate today, when the story was written (around 2800 BC), the Fertile Crescent was wet, lush, and green–a perfect climate for human life to flourish. Humanity in this area and time relied on nearby rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, which supplied vital water for agriculture. Ancient Mesopotamia was home to the Sumerians and their literature, of which Gilgamesh is a part of. When the Akkadians conquered Sumer, the narrative was adopted into the Akkadian language and later Old and Middle Babylonian. This means that there were a number of translations of this tale in ancient languages that all eventually died out as spoken communication.
Sadly, Gilgamesh as a narrative explores core human experiences, including the existential fear of death, the suffering in life, and the bonds between friends and family. The titular character comes from a privileged background as king of the city of Uruk and son of a deity. The narrative makes it clear that the people of Uruk have suffered at the hands of their selfish ruler but that they do not have the means to stand up to him, as he is a semi-divine tyrant. It is the entreaties of the common folk that spur the gods to act upon Gilgamesh, who recognize that this ruler must be dealt with. Instead of striking him dead, however, the gods choose to change this villain. Their tool, of course, is Gilgamesh’s only equal: Enkidu.
While Gilgamesh was born into the urban elite, Enkidu is shaped by the goddess Aruru as an adult, then thrown into the wilderness. He lives amongst the animals in harmony, unaware of the ways of human civilization. When other humans hunt his animal companions, Enkidu takes it upon himself, being a man with great physical strength, to free the creatures trapped before they become food. However, these actions negatively affect the human hunters who rely on their prey to survive. When considering Enkidu’ point of view, it is worth noting that the wild animals are the only family he has ever known, and his instinct to rescue them from death indicates his emotional ties and sense of loyalty. However, the humans who rely on animal prey for their own survival find their lives at stake when their prey disappears, making Enkidu an indirect cause of their starvation. One may ask, why do these people simply move to the city, where they can be protected and can rely on others for a food source? The city, while safe from animal predators, suffers from Gilgamesh’s brutality, making urban life dangerous in a different way. Truly, this tale contrasts life within and outside of the city walls, calling into question the pros and cons of urban and rural life. The common folk of both city and countryside all find themselves suffering from two men who have immense power: Enkidu harms those living in the wilderness when he uses his superhuman strength to free animal prey, and Gilgamesh harms those in the city when he abuses his royal power. If the gods are responsible for all of these people, how can they restore justice to these imbalanced societies?
At this point, it is worth discussing the pantheon of ancient Mesopotamia, which has various names in Ancient Akkadian, Sumerian, and Babylonian. While Gilgamesh himself, the historical figure, was eventually defied and worshiped around the same time the epic was becoming most popular, there are a number of gods and goddesses named in the narrative.
We encounter in this narrative:
- Ninsun: A goddess of cows, Ninsun is the mother of Gilgamesh and presides over Uruk when her son is away.
- Ishtar: The goddess of heaven who is associated with love, sex, fertility, and war. Ishtar has a temple in Uruk, where the priestess of love Shamat serves her. Ishtar is the daughter of Anu and Antu in this narrative.
- Anut: The king of the gods and the god of the sky. He is the owner of the Bull of Heaven.
- Adad: This god is associated with weather. He is credited with creating the storm that brought about the Great Flood.
- Aruru: this goddess creates Enkidu from clay but it is uncertain if she is a goddess of creation. She likely has a role in lifegiving and agriculture.
- Utanapishtim: While not a god, Utanapishtim was granted immortality and is known for surviving the Great Flood.
- Urshanabi: The boatman who ferries visitors across the cosmic ocean to Utanapishtim
- Siduri: A goddess who runs a tavern in the cosmic ocean
- Humbaba: A divine guardian of the forest, appointed by Enli
- Engli: A major god who appoints Humbaba as guardian of the cedar forest
- Ennugi: a god of agriculture
- Ereshkigal: The Goddess of the underworld
(The goddesses and gods listed here are not the only deities mentioned in this narrative, but we feel that they are the most important for the majority of readers. It is worth noting again that the names in this narrative may or may not match directly with other lists of Mesopotamian deities.)
When reading Gilgamesh through a lens of restorative justice, readers should consider who is hurt and who has caused that hurt. Within the first few lines of the tale, we as an audience can understand that the people of Uruk have been hurt by Gilgamesh himself, and they turn to the gods to bring justice for them. When we encounter Enkidu in the wilds, he aims to save the animals who have been hurt by humans, but at the same time, the humans seek divine justice against Enkidu, who has deprived them of their food source. Keep in mind that both Gilgamesh and Enkidu come from the gods, the former as a child of Ninsun and the latter as a specially formed being designed to combat Gilgamesh, in answer to the people of Uruk’s prayers.
Gilgamesh
The Epic of Gilgamesh is available at the following link:
https://pressbooks.nvcc.edu/eng255/chapter/the-epic-of-gilgamesh-2/
Gilgamesh and Rethinking the Monomyth
Watch the video introducing the Monomyth:
Read the article in the following link (you have to read this article to understand why the monomyth is problematic!):
https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/the-man-behind-the-myth-should-we-question-the-heros-journey/
Highly recommended:
Watch these videos on why Joseph Campbell’s Monomyth is highly problematic:
Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q9zR4lWyVN8&t=1217s
Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ET4BJIdZKa0
GROUP EXERCISES:
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Bio-poem: Introducing Ourselves; Introducing Gilgamesh
The Bio-poem should have the following lines, but you can adapt this format to include other items, such as important moments, heroes, beliefs, and special sayings or words. Whatever you include must be meaningful although you do not have to say why it is meaningful.
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Title: |
[[Your Name]] |
Gilgamesh
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Four adjectives that you would use to describe yourself/Gilgamesh
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Name(s) of important relationships in your/Gilgamesh’s life (e.g., friend, siblings, parents, etc.)
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Three different things that you/Gilgamesh love
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Important memories (up to three lines with each line being a different memory)
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Fears (up to two lines with each line being a different fear)
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Accomplishments (up to three lines with each line being a different accomplishment; you can alternate the number of lines with what you write in the other categories that have multiple lines) Hopes or wishes (up to three lines with each line being a different hope or wish; you can alternate the number of lines with what you write in the other categories that have multiple lines)
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Home (location)
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Gilgamesh and Restorative Justice Remember that Restorative Justice looks to repair harm caused by “our” actions. Sometimes harm is not measurable. Harm can be physical, but it can often be emotional. Relationships and communities are also harmed, not just individuals. Restorative Justice seeks to include all the people that have been harmed in finding solutions. It holds offenders accountable and encourages them to take responsibility for their actions. With this definition of RJ in mind, answer the following questions in relation to Gilgamesh. Please do exercise twice. First for the beginning of the texts until Enkidu’s death; last, from Enkidu’s death to the end of the text.
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RJ questions
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Gilgamesh: beginning of text |
Gilgamesh: End of text |
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Who has been hurt?
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What are their needs?
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Whose obligations are these?
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What are the causes?
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Who has a stake in the situation?
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Was there a process that ended up addressing the causes of hurt and working towards putting things right? Why or why not?
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FURTHER READINGS:
For Classroom resources on Gilgamesh that include a Map and Timeline, and a video with scholars and artists see:
https://www.learner.org/series/invitation-to-world-literature/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/
For more information on the Monomyth, see:
https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/monomyth-heros-journey-project
For a module dedicated entirely to Gilgamesh see:
https://kennesaw.softchalkcloud.com/lesson/serve/eNrkU4KfsYItxP/html
